By Lt Col Manoj K. Channan, Veteran
Warfare has constantly evolved, shaped by technological advancements, strategic ingenuity, and terrain exploitation. From the 16th-century military revolutions to modern hybrid and asymmetric conflicts, the art of war has continually adapted to confront both conventional and hidden enemies. Asymmetric warfare, a form of conflict where one side has significantly fewer resources or power than the other, particularly in recent decades, has expanded the battlefield, integrated guerrilla tactics and cyber warfare, and strategically used terrain and civilian environments to negate traditional military superiority. This article traces the historical evolution of warfare. It examines modern examples of hybrid warfare, providing a comprehensive understanding of how terrain and technology have been used to surprise, outmanoeuvre, and defeat hidden adversaries.
Historical Background: Evolution of Warfare from the 16th Century to the Gulf War
The 16th Century: The Birth of Modern Armies
The 16th century saw the transformation of European warfare through innovations like gunpowder artillery and trace Italian fortifications. Geoffrey Parker’s concept of the “military revolution” highlights how these developments forced a shift in military strategies, where sieges became central to warfare. Large standing armies began to dominate, with infantry—armed with pikes and muskets—gradually replacing feudal cavalry. Commanders strategically used terrain, such as mountains and rivers, to fortify positions and outflank opponents, emphasising the significance of geographical features in warfare and setting the stage for modern warfare’s reliance on terrain and technology to confront enemies.
Napoleonic Warfare: Manoeuvre and Mass Mobilization
Napoleon Bonaparte revolutionised warfare in the early 19th century using mass conscription, rapid mobility, and terrain exploitation. His ability to manoeuvre large armies quickly across varied terrain enabled him to surprise and outflank opponents. Innovations such as mobile artillery allowed him to break through defensive lines, while terrain became a critical factor in offensive and defensive operations. These movement, speed, and terrain exploitation strategies would continue influencing military tactics for generations.
Industrial Revolution and the American Civil War
The Industrial Revolution of the 19th century brought new technologies, such as railroads, telegraphs, and rifled artillery, transforming logistics and battlefield strategy. During the American Civil War, railways rapidly deployed troops, while telegraph systems enabled better communication between commanders. Terrain, from rivers to dense forests, played a crucial role in battles, with Union and Confederate forces using the geography to their advantage. The effective use of trenches foreshadowed World War I’s trench warfare, demonstrating how technology and terrain combined to reshape military strategies.
World War I: Trench Warfare and Chemical Weapons
World War I epitomised the stagnation of trench warfare, where static front lines and extensive defensive fortifications forced armies to innovate. The use of poison gas to target hidden enemies in trenches, along with the development of tanks and aircraft, showed how technological advancements were integrated into terrain-based warfare. Commanders sought to break the deadlock using artillery bombardments and infantry assaults across dangerous, shell-cratered landscapes. Despite this, the war demonstrated the difficulty of overcoming well-entrenched forces using traditional tactics.
World War II: Combined Arms and Tactical Innovation
World War II marked the full integration of combined arms, a military doctrine that employed various combat methods to achieve specific objectives. In this case, infantry, tanks, artillery, and air power were coordinated. The importance of terrain became more apparent in campaigns such as the D-Day landings, where Allied forces navigated heavily fortified coastlines and minefields to establish beachheads. Dense jungles and mountainous terrain in the Pacific theatre favoured guerrilla warfare, ambushes, and hidden defensive positions, complicating conventional strategies. Radar, amphibious warfare, and air superiority further highlighted how technology could be used to negate the advantages of rugged terrain.
The Vietnam War: Guerrilla Warfare and Terrain
The Vietnam War illustrated the power of asymmetric warfare, where the Viet Cong and North Vietnamese forces used dense jungle terrain, tunnels, and guerrilla tactics to outmanoeuvre U.S. forces. The terrain provided cover for hidden movements, ambushes, and supply lines, while unconventional tactics, such as booby traps and tunnel networks, negated the technological superiority of American forces. This conflict demonstrated that advanced technology alone could not overcome an enemy deeply embedded in rugged terrain, showcasing the importance of adapting to the environment.
The Gulf War: Precision and Technological Superiority
The Gulf War marked a new era in military technology, where precision-guided munitions, stealth aircraft, and real-time intelligence played a decisive role. Coalition forces, led by the United States, used advanced technology to systematically destroy Iraqi forces and infrastructure while avoiding direct ground engagement. Using laser-guided bombs and cruise missiles to target hidden military positions in urban environments demonstrated how technology could negate traditional defensive tactics. This conflict set the stage for future hybrid wars, where conventional and unconventional tactics would be integrated.
Modern Hybrid and Asymmetric Warfare
Somali Piracy in the Indian Ocean Region
Somali pirates, using small, fast boats and modern communication technology, have employed asymmetric tactics to hijack large ships in the Indian Ocean. Their ability to exploit the ocean’s vastness and local lawlessness made them formidable. International naval patrols struggle to monitor such a large area effectively, demonstrating how low-tech tactics can outmanoeuvre well-equipped modern forces. This hybrid warfare exploits gaps in conventional defences and uses mobility and terrain to their advantage.
Hamas Attack on Israel (October 7, 2023)
Hamas’s assault on Israel exemplified hybrid warfare, combining conventional missile strikes with guerrilla infiltration and the use of civilian shields. This attack showcased the complexity of modern conflict, where non-state actors use urban terrain and civilian populations to hide military assets. Additionally, Hamas employed social media and propaganda, integrating information warfare into the conflict.
Russia-Ukraine Conflict: Drone Warfare and Infrastructure Attacks
The ongoing conflict between Russia and Ukraine has seen the innovative use of drones for surveillance, strikes, and intelligence gathering. Both sides have employed drones to attack naval and land targets, highlighting how unmanned systems bypass traditional defences. The destruction of the Nord Stream pipeline, whether by drones or other unconventional means, exemplifies how critical infrastructure far from the battlefield can be targeted in hybrid warfare, impacting both military and civilian spheres. This use of technology in the warzone demonstrates how modern hybrid warfare can affect immediate battle outcomes and global geopolitics.
Israeli Tactics: Using Mobile Pagers and Icom Communication Sets
In its operations against Hamas, Israel employed low-tech but effective tools like mobile pagers and Icom communication sets to pinpoint hidden terrorist networks. This tactic allowed Israeli forces to operate with precision, targeting terrorists while minimising civilian casualties. This simple yet effective communication technology highlights the evolving nature of asymmetric warfare, where ingenuity and adaptability can often outmatch expensive, advanced systems. Israel’s ability to track and neutralise hidden Hamas operatives has set a benchmark for modern counterterrorism in urban settings.
Hybrid and Asymmetric Warfare in India
Kashmir and the Line of Control (LoC) with Pakistan:
The conflict in Kashmir and along the LoC has long exemplified hybrid warfare, with Pakistan supporting insurgent groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed. These groups have used guerrilla warfare tactics, leveraging the rugged mountainous terrain to infiltrate and attack Indian positions. This form of hybrid conflict blends conventional artillery shelling with the asymmetric tactics of non-state actors, creating a complex security environment for India.
Line of Actual Control (LAC) with China:
The LAC has been a battleground for hybrid warfare, with China employing salami-slicing tactics to incrementally encroach on Indian territory. The rugged, high-altitude terrain challenges logistics and military operations for both nations, while China uses infrastructure development and non-military pressure to shift the balance of power. The 2020 Galwan Valley clash was a stark example of hybrid warfare, with physical confrontations taking place without traditional firepower.
In India’s Northeastern states, insurgent groups like ULFA and NSCN have waged asymmetric wars using guerrilla tactics, exploiting the dense forests and remote regions. These groups have relied on external support, including from Myanmar and Bangladesh, further complicating India’s counter-insurgency efforts.
India’s military intervention in Sri Lanka, known as Operation Pawan, was a significant instance of hybrid warfare. The Indian Peacekeeping Force (IPKF) fought against the LTTE, which employed guerrilla tactics, suicide bombings, and terrorism. The LTTE’s deep knowledge of the local terrain and their use of civilian shields made it difficult for Indian forces to achieve decisive victories, highlighting the complexities of fighting insurgent forces embedded within the local population.
Countermeasures Against Hybrid Threats
To counter these modern threats, nations must adopt multi-layered strategies integrating intelligence, cyber defence, and quick-response forces. Developing anti-drone systems, enhanced surveillance, and counter-insurgency tactics are essential in neutralising the advantages that asymmetric forces gain through terrain and unconventional warfare methods. Collaborative international efforts, such as joint naval patrols against Somali piracy, demonstrate how coordinated responses can mitigate the impact of hybrid threats. Technology, such as real-time intelligence systems and traditional counter-insurgency tactics, responds best to these evolving challenges.
Conclusion
The evolution of warfare, from the military revolutions of the 16th century to the modern conflicts of the 21st century, has been marked by the constant adaptation of technology, strategy, and terrain. Hybrid and asymmetric warfare, as seen in recent conflicts like Ukraine, Somalia, and Gaza, and in India’s own experiences in Kashmir, Sri Lanka, and the Northeastern states, challenges traditional military tactics and international laws. The lessons from historical conflicts illustrate the importance of understanding the terrain and using technology creatively to outsmart and neutralise hidden or elusive enemies. As warfare continues to evolve, the ability to adapt, innovate, and integrate diverse strategies will be vital to maintaining military superiority in an increasingly complex global environment.
The author is an Indian Army Veteran.
Disclaimer: Views expressed are personal and do not reflect the official position or policy of Financial Express Online. Reproducing this content without permission is prohibited.