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the third and most accessible layer of needs. Such needs are quite tangible, and have a strong rational component. Price, availability and convenience are examples of this group of needs.

Functional needs are easily identified through direct questioning. Consumers are very comfortable talking at this level. However, in many cases these functional needs are no more than rationalisations for the more hidden emotive needs. The key is to understand that they are not the drivers of brand preference, but the rationalisation for it.

So far, we have talked about the three layers of needs. The other side of the coin is the brand image and how this works to satisfy consumer needs. As we have categorised the needs into three layers, we can divide brand image into three corresponding layers.

Symbolism (personality): All brands to some degree have a symbolic meaning, a personality. The meaning is derived from the product itself and is molded by the brand’s image. Different automotive brands express this through product design and the symbolism of the brand, the brand’s product character, styling and advertising. The symbolic meaning of the brand satisfies the more emotive needs because they are both operating at the same implicit level.

Social values: The second layer of the brand’s image is its social value. For example, where does the brand fit into the social hierarchy; is it ordinary or up-market, is it male or female, young or old? If the brand’s social values do not send out the right signals it won’t be particularly attractive. The brand’s social values satisfy our social identity needs. For example, when we get a promotion, we often have the inclination to buy a larger car, to show that we are progressing in life. Therefore, we would look for a brand with more sophisticated social values.

Product features: The outer layer of the brand image is its tangible product features. These satisfy our more functional needs. While not necessarily acting as the driver of brand preference, these do provide a means of differentiation and in many cases rationalisation for preference.